The Naga struggle is often described as Asia’s oldest insurgency and India’s longest-running internal conflict. It is a movement deeply rooted in identity, colonial legacies, and demands for sovereignty. For over seven decades, the Nagas have fought—politically, militarily, and ideologically—for a recognition of their distinct nationhood. The struggle has shaped not only Nagaland but also the wider Northeast, influencing India’s policies, peace negotiations, and security strategies.
Who Are the Nagas?
The term “Naga” does not refer to a single tribe but to a collection of over thirty distinct tribes, each with its own language, customs, and traditions. Spread across Nagaland, Manipur, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and even into Myanmar, the Nagas share a sense of cultural identity rooted in their history as highland people who maintained a degree of autonomy from plains empires.
British colonial rule reinforced this sense of separateness. The Naga Hills were administered under a “frontier policy” that kept them relatively isolated from the rest of India. This laid the foundation for the Nagas’ belief that they were a distinct entity, separate from both colonial India and the post-colonial Indian nation-state.
Early Seeds of Nationalism
The roots of Naga nationalism can be traced back to the early 20th century. In 1918, the Naga Club was formed, which famously petitioned the Simon Commission in 1929, declaring that Nagas should not be merged with Assam but allowed to govern themselves.
The demand grew stronger during the 1940s. In 1946, the Naga National Council (NNC) was established, led by figures such as Angami Zapu Phizo. The NNC became the driving force of the Naga political movement. On 14 August 1947—one day before India achieved independence—the NNC declared Naga independence, setting the stage for decades of confrontation with the Indian state.
Escalation into Armed Struggle
In 1951, the NNC organized a plebiscite in which they claimed 99% of Nagas supported independence. India rejected the demand, leading to armed rebellion. By the mid-1950s, the Naga insurgency had begun in full force, making it the first armed ethnic conflict of independent India.
The Indian government responded with a strong military presence, deploying the army and later introducing special laws such as the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA). This militarized response deepened resentment, as reports of human rights violations became part of the conflict’s legacy.
Factions, Splits, and the Shillong Accord
The movement fractured over the decades. In 1975, the Shillong Accord was signed between the Indian government and sections of the NNC. The accord required Naga rebels to accept the Indian Constitution and surrender arms. While it was a breakthrough on paper, many Nagas saw it as a betrayal of their aspirations for full sovereignty.
This disillusionment led to the birth of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) in 1980, led by Thuingaleng Muivah, Isak Chishi Swu, and S.S. Khaplang. The NSCN became the new face of the insurgency but itself split into two powerful factions—NSCN (IM) and NSCN (K)—each with its own ideology and territorial ambitions.
The Dream of Greater Nagalim
A key demand that has kept the conflict alive is the idea of “Greater Nagalim.” This vision seeks to unite all Naga-inhabited areas in Nagaland, Manipur, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and parts of Myanmar into a single homeland. For many Nagas, this is the essence of their sovereignty.
However, the demand directly challenges the territorial integrity of several Indian states and Myanmar. This has made it one of the most difficult issues to resolve in peace talks, as neighboring states have strongly opposed any redrawing of boundaries.
Peace Efforts and the Framework Agreement
Since the 1990s, successive Indian governments have attempted negotiations. In 1997, a ceasefire was signed with the NSCN (IM), beginning one of the world’s longest-running peace talks. After nearly two decades of dialogue, a Framework Agreement was signed in 2015 between Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s government and the NSCN (IM).
The agreement was hailed as historic, but its details remain largely confidential. While it raised hopes of a permanent settlement, subsequent years revealed deep disagreements over interpretation—especially around the ideas of a separate Naga flag, constitution, and the extent of autonomy.
The Present Situation
As of today, the Naga issue remains unresolved. While there have been long ceasefires and negotiations, no comprehensive peace treaty has been finalized. The NSCN (IM) and other factions continue to press for sovereignty, while the Indian government insists on a settlement within the framework of the Indian Constitution.
Some groups have threatened to resume violence, highlighting the fragility of the peace process. The challenge lies in balancing Naga aspirations with India’s sovereignty and the concerns of neighboring states.
Why It’s Called the “Oldest Insurgency”
The Naga struggle predates all other insurgencies in India’s Northeast. Beginning before India’s independence and persisting through decades of negotiation, factionalism, and occasional violence, it has outlasted similar movements elsewhere. Its longevity makes it a defining feature of postcolonial India’s political landscape.
Reflections on the Path Ahead
The Naga struggle is not just about sovereignty; it is about identity, dignity, and belonging. Yet, divisions among Naga factions have weakened the movement’s unity, while decades of militarization have left scars on society.
A lasting solution will require more than ceasefires and accords—it will demand political imagination, cultural recognition, and a willingness to reconcile multiple truths. For India, resolving the Naga conflict would not only bring peace to the Northeast but also stand as a model for how multi-ethnic, postcolonial states can address historic grievances.
The Naga insurgency is more than just a story of guns and peace talks; it is the story of a people struggling to define their place in history. Whether through sovereignty, autonomy, or a negotiated middle path, the future of the Naga struggle remains one of the most complex and consequential questions for India and the wider region.
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